article on microcurrent therapy

Expert Discussion Recovery and Regeneration
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MICROCURRENT THERAPY
By Kenneth R. Morareidge, Ph.D., Physiology Consultant

Copyright, 1989, All Rights Reserved

The potential of microcurrent therapy in health care has only recently attracted serious attention. Like many biological phenomena, knowledge of the very existence of small currents in the body had to wait on the development of technology sophisticated and sensitive enough to study them. The application of microcurrents to human tissue is remarkably effective in speeding the wound healing process. Numerous clinical studies have confirmed the effectiveness of very small currents in accelerating the healing process in non-union bone fractures and bone transplants. The use of microcurrent in such applications has become a standard procedure among orthopedic surgeons and physical therapists.

However, the effects of microcurrent therapy on the other types of injuries are just beginning to be explored on a systematic basis. Several clinical studies have reported the acceleration of healing of soft tissue injuries. Even more recent is the use of microcurrent therapy by physical therapists, athletic trainers, and other body workers. The available technology now allows great freedom in experimenting with microcurrent generators.

What is microcurrent? Normal household current is measured in amperes (amps). Microcurrent is measured in MicroAmps, millionths of an ampere. Current levels that seem to be most effective in helping tissue heal range from 20 to 500 MicroAmps. But many questions remain about these currents. How do they work in the body? Can they ever be dangerous? what are the long term effects of their use? In addition, there are questions of liability and licensing which legislators have yet to deal with.

Most of the published research on soft tissue injury and the effects of microcurrents have described the accelerated healing of ulcers in the skin, and associated suppression of bacterial growth (1,2,3,4). A skin ulcer is an injury that is visible and easy to assess. One can follow the rate of healing by measuring the size of the ulcer, and bacterial samples are easy to obtain with a swab. Observations of this type of injury can be at least provisionally extended to deeper tissue. For example, if microcurrents increase the rate of collagen formation in skin (3), there is a good chance that they also do it in ligaments and tendons. Also there is evidence of connective tissue cell multiplication, the formation of new collagen, in injured tendons (5) and increased strength in healed tendons of experimental animals (6) as a result of the application of microcurrent.

One report describes the accelerated healing of ligament injuries in members of a Canadian Olympic Team. The team physician routinely used microcurrent therapy in treating the athletes (7). Other studies have shown that microcurrents reduce pain with far fewer treatments than would be expected with conventional physical therapy (8,9).

There is even a study that indicates that microcurrents helped weight lifters increase strength more rapidly, and that these effects extended beyond the time treatment stopped (10).

Much of what we know about electrical currents in the body comes form the work of Robert Becker, who spent many years studying regeneration in the salamander and other animals (11). Microcurrents were first seen at amputation sites and in conjunction with other injuries, and were called “currents of injury,” or “stump currents.”

These electrical currents at injury sites were associated with the animals’ ability to regenerate damaged or lost limbs. The greater the current density, the more complete the regeneration. This helped explain the differences between various types of animals in their regeneration abilities. Many animals, especially young ones can regenerate lost limbs or portions thereof. The champion of all land animals at this do-it-yourself replacement is the salamander. It also turns out that the salamander has the greatest injury current density of any land animal.

Becker’s most astonishing discovery was that under the influence of an appropriately applied direct current certain cells are capable of de-differentiation. He found that mature, fully differentiated cells are able to retrogress to an embryonic form, with the ability to redifferentiate into whatever cell types are needed for complete regeneration. The group of undifferentiated cells that forms thusly at the stump of an amputated limb is called the bastema. The currents of injury that have been measured at amputation stumps in humans and animals appear to be related to the nerves supplying the area, and to the formation of the bastema.

The entire body is a low-level, direct current generator, a battery whose positive pole is along the spine and whose negative pole is the periphery. But how are these currents conducted through the body? The most obvious possibility is the nervous system and its support structure. Cells of the nervous system are known to generate electrical energy. Nerve signals are, after all, electrical or electrochemical events that transmit signals over large distances in the body.

But these signals are just that-signals, not actual currents. Furthermore, the voltages generated by the nervous system and by muscle are much larger than those we see at injury sites.

The nervous system is not comprised solely of neurons. There is a vastly greater network of cells that supports and nurtures the neurons. Generally there are glial cells in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nerves. All neuron cells bodies reside in the brain and spinal cord. Only their axons and dendrites extend outward, forming the peripheral nerves that connect every part of the body with the CNS. Becker has likened these neurons cell bodies and glia support structure to “Hairy raisins embedded in a pudding.” These glia cells are electrical conductors that do not transmit discrete signals like neurons, but rather carry very small direct currents. These currents have a profound effect, either directly or by the magnetic fields they generate, not only on the neurons which they surround, but also on other cells.

Another possible conductor of electricity is the circulatory system, especially the capillaries. Nordenstrom (12) has indicated that in an area of injury a positive charge builds up, which would serve as a sing for the negative current flowing from the core of the body to the periphery. Concentration of the injury current is further enhanced by the ability of the circulatory system (capillaries) to conduct current. This happens when the normally ion-impermeable walls of the capillaries become less so. Forcing an increased current flow through the capillaries to the point of injury. Nordenstrom has had some very positive results in causing lung tumors to regress by using electrical currents.

Then there is that biological will-o-the-wisp, the meridian. The functional existence of meridians is a basic tenet of Chinese medicine. Their physical existence has been demonstrated by the use of radioactive tracers injected at acupuncture points. The tracers indeed distributed along the meridians (13, 14). However, the anatomical nature of the meridians remains in dispute. The Korean investigative results have not been reproduced. Such channels must be very thin and delicate, scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding connective tissue. It is quite possible that the flow of fluid or electricity is necessary to keep these channels open, and if collapsed, they become virtually invisible. The actual function of meridians remains a subject of speculation. They contain large amounts of DNA and a number of hormones. including adrenaline. They apparently are among the earliest structures to form in the embryo and may act as guides for the formation and later maintenance of other vessels and organs.

All of these mechanisms may be involved. This may explain why chronically tight muscles and connective tissue suffer damage. This might derive not just from ischemic loss of nutrients, but an area of tightness might actually “squeeze out” the electrolyte-containing water from an area, changing and reducing its electrical conductivity. Body workers have noticed that microcurrent treatment is much less effective for those who are even moderately dehydrated or lacking in electrolytes. Microcurrent therapy seems to depend upon electrically conductive tissue in order to gently force current into an area. This is also true of acupuncture. A metal needle changes the course of the body’s natural electrical current. This is especially true if the needle is connected by a wire to another needle more proximal to the body core, allowing an alternate route for current to enter the area.

How do cells respond to electrical currents in a way that increases their healing activity? In order to deal with this question we must enter the shadowy world of cell molecular biology. The effects of small currents on the cell and on the organism are equally profound by of a very different order of magnitude. The primary organizing factor of the body now appears to be electromagnetic. That is, electricity not only influences the metabolism of the individual cell , by also tells the cell where it fits into the larger scheme of thins, i.e., in the organism. Electromagnetic fields form the orienting “map” by which the body organizes and by which the cells ------------

At the cellular level electricity is pervasive. A large percentage of the cell’s total energy budget goes to the separation of ions (charged atoms and molecules). When positively and negatively charged ions are separated, the result is an electrical potential (voltage). Cells are enormously active in creating ion separations across closed membranes. These separations occur across the cell membrane and across organelle membranes within the cell. Once an electrical charge has been built up, it represents an important source of stored energy for the cell, rather like water stored behind a dam, or electricity store in a battery.

There are two forces at work here. One of them is electrical - a positively charged ion would like to migrate across membrane toward the more negative side. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other. The other force is concentration. Any highly concentrated ion would like to diffuse into an area where it would be less concentrated. The cell uses both of these forces.

Ion pumps in the cell membrane actively more sodium ion out of the cell and potassium ions in. The large build up of sodium ions outside the cell is then used to power other forms of transport, just as forcing water flow through a turbo-generator powers electricity production. For example, sodium ions are allowed to flow down their concentration gradient into the cell, powering the active transport of glucose and amino acid molecules up their concentration gradients in to the cell. But transport within the cell is even more interesting and more relevant to our concerns. The mitochondrion is an organelle within the cell and is made up of a set of closed membranes. Mitochondria have been called the “powerhouses” of the cell, because all the reactions of aerobic metabolism take place within them.

Within the mitochondrion is a set of special enzymes called cytochromes. These enzymes take the hydrogen ions released by the metabolic degradation of glucose and fats and moves them across the mitochondrion’s internal —

The ions are then allowed to flow back across the membrane, but as they do so they power the creation of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the major source of chemical energy for the cell. This process is called chemiosmosis (15). In a few cases this “downhill” flow of hydrogen ions powers cell processes directly. The fact is that the concentration of hydrogen ions in the mitochondrion (electrochemical proton gradient) and the chemical ATP are inter convertible and equivalent storage forms of cell energy and are used to power virtually all cell processes from synthesis of proteins to ion pumps to muscle contractions.

The total energy of the cell can be estimated chemically by the amount of ATP available, or electrically from the total ionic charge separation (capacitance). We can now see that if an electrical current of appropriate magnitude and direction were to flow through a cell, hydrogen ions formed by electrolysis of water at the anode (positive electrode) would migrate through the cell. When they reached the mitochondria membrane they would power the formation of ATP at an increased rate.

Thus any cell activity for which energy availability was the limiting factor would be accelerated by an electrical current. This has been found experimentally to be true. Amino acid uptake by the cell and subsequent of microcurrents to both intact tissue and cells in culture (16, 17).

Of course, hydrogen ions are not the only ions whose movement would be affected by electrical currents. Another very important ion is cell physiology is calcium. Calcium ion has long been recognized as one of the two important “internal messengers” of the cell (the other being cyclic AMP). The nerve impulse along an axon opens calcium gates in the axon terminal. This allows an influx of calcium ions which signals the membranes of the synaptic vesicles to merge with the presynaptic membrane, releasing neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. But this is only one example. The presence of calcium in the form of a calcium protein complex helps in the secretion, ATP recycling, and many other cell processes. In biochemistry texts, the calmodulin molecule is shown as having the shape of a four-leaf clover with a calcium ion bound to each leaf.

Thus the entry of calcium into the cell can be implicated in the control of cell growth and gene expression (i.e., differentiation and dedifferentiation). There are electrically controlled calcium gates in the cell membranes of human fibroblasts, and these gates can be opened by appropriate electrical current applied experimentally (18). Electrical stimulation of human fibroblasts also increases the synthesis of protein and DNA (17). While evidence is not yet totally conclusive, there is a strong case for the notion that microcurrent triggers productive mechanisms involving the calcium gates in cell membranes.

Another perspective, from a somewhat different direction, has been offered by Cheng, et al (16). They have shown that cell protein synthesis is increased by the application of microcurrents but they did not observe any increase in the synthesis of DNA. Most interesting, however, is their demonstration of a large increase in the synthesis of ATP. This molecule is the basic energy source for all cell activities, including protein synthesis. It is essential to booth contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscle. If ATP supply is a limiting factor, then microcurrents will significantly increase this supply and thereby enhance energy-dependent activities of the cell.

References

  1. Assimacopoulos, D. 1968. Low Intensity Negative Electrical Current in the Treatement of Ulcers of the Leg due to Chronic Venous Insufficiency. Am J Surg 115::683-687

  2. Carley, P.J., S.F. Wainapel. 1985. Electrotherapy for Acceleration of Wound Healing: Low Intensity Direct Current. Arch Phys Med Rehabilitation 66:4443-445

  3. Alvarez, O.M., et al. 1983. The Healing of Superficial Skin Wounds.

  4. Barron, J.J., W.E. Jacobson, et al. 1985 Treatment of Decubitus Ulcers: A New Approach. Minn Med 68:103-106

  5. Nessler, J.P., D.P. Mass. 1985 Direct Current Electrical Stimulation of Tendon Healing in Vitro. Clin Orthop 217:303-312

  6. Owoeye, L., N. Speiholz, et al. 1987. Low-Intensity Pulsed Galvanic Current and the Healing of Tenotomized Rat Achilles Tendons: Preliminary Report Using Load-to-Breaking Measurements. Arch Phys Med Rehabilitation 68:415-418

  7. Stanish, W. Electrical Stimulation of Torn Ligaments Cuts Rehab Time by two-thirds. Medical World News. Feb. 27, 1984, p. 67.

  8. Noto, K., P. Grant. 1985. Comparative Study of Electro-Acuscope Neural Stimulation and Conventional Physical Therapy Modalities. Physical Therapy Forum 4:11.

  9. Meyer, F.P., A. Nebrenski. 1983. Micro Stimulation and Placebo Effect Calif Health Review 2:1.

  10. Scott, J., R. Picker. A Double Blind Study to Evaluate Muscle Strength in Athletes Treated With Electro-Myopulse. Intl Soc Electro-Acutherapy.Feb. 27, 1983.

  11. Becker, R.O., G. Shelden. 1985 THE BODY ELECTRIC. William Morrow & Co.: New York.

  12. Taubes, G. An Electrifying Possibility. Discover. Apr. 1986, pp. 23-37.

  13. Rose-Niel, S. The Work of Professor Kim Bong Han. The acupuncturist. 1:15, 1967. !uoted in VIBRATIONAL MEDICINE Richard Gerber.

  14. DeVernejoul et al. Etude Des Meridiens D’Acupuncture Par Les Traceurs Radioactifs. Bul Acad Natle. Med. 169:-1071-1075, 1985. Quoted in VIBRATIONAL MEDICINE

  15. Mitchell, P. 1976. Vectoral Chemistry and the Molecular Mechanism of Chemiosmotic Coupling: Power Transmission by Proticity. Biochem Soc Trans 4;400.

  16. Cheng, N. et al. 1982. The Effects of Electric Currents on ATP Generation, Protein Synthesis and Membrane Transport in Rat Skin. Clin Orthop Rel Res 171;264-272.

17.Bourguignon, G.J., L.Y.W. Bourguignon. 1987. Electrical Stimulation of Protein and DNA Synthesis in Human Fibroblasts. FASEB J 1(5): 398-402.

  1. Chen, C.P. Hess. 1987. Calcium Channels in Mouse 3T3 and Human Fiboblasts. Biophys J 51:226a.
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how could one incorporate Micorcurrent for “full body healing”?

Macrocurrent and Microcurrent Electrostimulation in Sport

Mel C Siff PhD

(Note: This article drew extensively on material from the textbook, Siff MC & Verkhoshansky YV Supertraining 1999. Anyone requiring further information on this topic should consult Chapter 4 of this book.)

The use of electric current on the human body largely has been restricted to use by physiotherapists to facilitate the healing of musculoskeletal injuries and control pain. It is fairly arbitrarily applied in two broad categories:

• Macrocurrent Stimulation (currents over about 1 milliamp)

• Microcurrent Stimulation (currents below about 1 milliamp)

The former usually refers to Faradic, Interferential, Galvanic and TENS (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation) devices, whereas the latter refers to specialised microcurrent devices for application either to the musculoskeletal system or as a non-invasive form of electroacupuncture via the acupuncture points of the body or the auricular points of the ears. The differences between these applications will be discussed later in this article.

The concept of electrostimulation for physical conditioning is not new, and for years has been used by physical therapists in clinical applications such as muscle rehabilitation, relief of muscular spasm, reduction of swelling and pain control. Its possible value in sports training is still considered controversial. In strength conditioning, the potential applications of electrostimulation fall into the following broad categories:

• Imposition of local physical stress to stimulate supercompensation

• Local restoration after exercise or injury

• General central nervous and endocrine restoration after exercise or injury

• Neuromuscular stimulation for pain control or movement patterning

Electrostimulation usually involves feeding the muscles low current electrical impulses via moistened electrode pads placed firmly on the skin. The effectiveness, comfort and depth of excitation depends on factors such as pulse shape, frequency, duration, intensity and modula­tion pattern. The resulting number of possible stimulation combinations immediately empha­sizes how difficult it is to determine the optimum balance of variables and compare the results of different researchers.

The typical clinical machine supplies pulsating direct (galvanic) and/or alternating (faradic) current in the form of brief pulses. The frequency of faradic current is most commonly chosen in the range of about 50-100 Hz, while pulse duration (width) ranges from about 100 mi­croseconds to several hundred milliseconds. This brevity of pulse duration is important for minimising skin irritation and tissue damage. However, the duration at any particular intensity of faradic stimulation should not be too brief. Although they may be suitable for decreasing pain, pulses that are too brief will supply insufficient energy to cause full, tetanic muscle contraction.

Machines are designed to apply alternating currents directly at a preset or selected fre­quency (conventional faradism), or in the form of low frequency currents superimposed on a medium frequency (2000 to 5000 Hz) carrier wave. A variation of the latter method, using two pairs of electrodes each supplying medium frequency waves carrying low frequency waves dif­fering slightly in frequency, forms the basis of what is called interferential stimulation. A major advantage of using a higher frequency carrier wave is that impedance between the electrodes and skin is lowered, enhancing comfort and effectiveness.

American interest in electrostimulation as a training adjunct was aroused in 1971, when Kots in Russia reported increases of more than 20% in muscle strength, speed and power pro­duced by several weeks of electrotraining. Unable to produce comparable results, the Canadians invited him to lecture at Concordia University in 1977. Armed with the new infor­mation that Kots employed a sinusoidally modulated 2500 Hz current source applied in a se­quence of 10 seconds of contraction followed by 50 seconds of relaxation, they again tried to duplicate Russian claims.

Applications of Macrocurrent Stimulation

A literature review reveals the following major uses of macrocurrent stimulation in the realm of therapy. A more detailed discussion or the citations are not quoted here, but appear in my review on this topic [Siff M C (1990) Applications of electrostimulation in physical conditioning: a review J of Appl Sports Science Res 4 (1) : 20-26 ], as well as in the textbook: Siff MC & Verkhoshansky YV (1999) Supertraining, Ch 4.

  1. Increase in muscle strength

  2. Re-education of muscle action

  3. Facilitation of muscle contraction in dysfunctional or unused muscle

  4. Increase of muscular and general endurance

  5. Increase in speed of muscle contraction

  6. Increase in local blood supply

  7. Provision of massage

  8. Relief of pain

  9. Reduction of muscle spasm

  10. Promotion of relaxation and recuperation

  11. Increase in range of movement

  12. Reduction of swelling

  13. Reduction of musculoskeletal abnormalities

  14. Preferential recruitment of specific muscle groups

  15. Acute increase in strength

  16. Improvement in metabolic efficiency

The Emergence of Microcurrent Stimulation

Recent research and clinical experience have revealed that electric currents as much as 1000 times smaller than that of all the traditional physical therapy modalities can be far more success­ful than the latter in achieving many of the benefits outlined in the previous section.

Currents as low as 10 microamps (millionths of an amp) pulsating at between 0.1 to 400Hz are too weak to cause muscle contraction, block pain signals or cause local heating, yet their effectiveness and safety is often superior in many applications to that of faradism, interfer­entialism and conventional TENS (Matteson & Eberhardt, 1985).

The steps to satisfactorily modify the existing paradigm for ES may be sought in the re­search findings quoted earlier in the section: ‘Reasons for conflicting research’. There, it was learned that cellular and subcellular processes not involving cell discharge, propagated electrical impulses, or muscle contraction, appear to be involved with cellular growth and repair.

Some studies have produced findings which offer partial answers to the questions posed by microstimulation. For instance, work by Becker and others suggests that small, steady or slowly varying currents can cause sub-threshold modulation of the electric fields across nerve and glial cells, thereby directly regulating cell growth and communication (Becker, 1974; Becker & Marino, 1982). In this respect, some of Becker’s applications included the accelera­tion of wound healing, partial regeneration of amphibian and rat limbs, and induction of narco­sis with transcranial currents. Nordenström maintains that these electric currents can stimulate the flow of ions along the blood vessels and through the cell membranes which constitute the body’s closed electric circuits postulated by his theory (Nordenström, 1983).

Pilla (1974) has paid particular attention to electrochemical information transfer across cell membranes. The model in this case hypothesizes that the molecular structure of the cell mem­brane reflects its current genetic activity. Here, the function of a cell at any instant is determined by feedback between DNA in the cell nucleus and a macromolecule inducer liberated from the membrane by means of a protein (enzyme) regulator derived from messenger RNA activity within the cell. The activity of these membrane-bound proteins is strongly modulated by changes in the concentration of divalent ions (such as calcium Ca++) absorbed on the mem­brane. ES may elicit these ionic changes and thereby modify cell function.

It has been shown that ES at 5Hz stimulates synthesis of DNA in chick cartilage cells and rat bone by as much as 27%, but not in chick skin fibroblasts or rat spleen lymphocytes (Rodan et al, 1978). Not only does the effect of ES appear to be tissue-specific, but the increase in DNA synthesis occurs 4-6 hours after 15 minutes of ES. The process of membrane depolarisa­tion carried by sodium ions seems to be followed by an increase in intracellular Ca++ concen­tration, thereby triggering DNA synthesis in cells susceptible to the particular stimulus. Further work by Pilla (1981) has confirmed the existence of cellular ‘windows’ which open most ef­fectively to certain frequencies, pulse widths and pulse amplitudes. To attune the ES signal to these parameters, monitoring of tissue impedances is preferable, a system employed by so-called ‘Intelligent TENS’ devices.

In addition, Cheng et al (1982) have shown that stimulation with currents from 50-1000 microamps can increase tissue ATP concentrations in rats by 300-500%, and enhances amino acid transport through the cell membrane and consequent protein synthesis by as much as 40%. Interestingly, the same study reported that increasing the current above only one milliamp was sufficient to depress tissue ATP and protein synthesis - and traditional ES most commonly applies cur­rents exceeding 20 milliamps, at which stage this depression being nearly 50%.

An Integrated Theory of Electrostimulation

Therefore, it appears as if macrocurrent stimulation (MACS - currents exceeding one milliamp) acts as a physiological stressor, which in the short term causes the typical alarm re­sponse described by Selye (1975). This is supported by the work of Eriksson et al (1981), who found that the acute effects of traditional ES are similar to those found for intense volun­tary exercise. Furthermore, Gambke et al (1985) have found in animal studies that long-term MACS causes some muscle fibres to degenerate and be replaced by newly formed fibres from satellite cell proliferation. This fibre necrosis occurs a few days after application of ES and seems to affect mainly the FT fibres. The fact that the various muscle fibres do not transform at the same time may be due to different thresholds of each fibre to the stimulus that elicits the transformation. Possibly, the earlier changes might induce subsequent ones.

Thus, if Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome model is applied to MACS-type stimulation, the body would have to draw on its superficial adaptation energy stores and adapt to the ES-imposed stress by increasing strength or endurance, or by initiating transformation of muscle fibre types. If the ES is too intense, too prolonged or inappropriately used to augment a weight training programme, adaptation might not occur or it might increase the proportion of slow twitch fibres and thereby reduce strength. This could explain some of the negative re­search findings discussed earlier.

Furthermore, excessively demanding MACS conceivably might cause the body to draw on its deep adaptation energy and lead to permanent tissue damage. Consequently, any athlete who may derive definite performance benefits from MACS should not assume that increased dosage will lead to further improvement. The contrary may well prove to be true.

Microcurrent stimulation (MICS - currents below one milliamp), on the other hand, would not act as a stressor. Instead, the evidence implies that it elicits biochemical changes associated with enhanced adaptation, growth and repair. Since MICS appears to oper­ate more on the basis of resonant attunement of the stimulus to cellular and subcellular pro­cesses, the specific therapeutic effects are determined by how efficiently the stimulation parame­ters match the electrical characteristic of the different cells, in particular, their impedance at dif­ferent frequencies. MICS may be applied in several ways to facilitate restoration:

• locally over specific soft tissues

• transcranially via electrodes on the earlobes or on sites on the surface of the skull

• at acupuncture points on the body, hands or ears.

It is generally entirely safe to apply MICS anywhere on the body, because the current and en­ergy transmitted is too low to produce any thermal or electrolytic effects on vital tissues. Under no circumstances should MACS be applied across the brain, as it can cause serious harm. It is generally not advisable to apply any form of ES to epileptics, pregnant women, cardiac patients or persons with heart pacemakers.

The Validity of Microcurrent Application?

There has been considerable debate about the value of microcurrent (small electrical currents of less than 1 ampere) in physical therapy, with its supporters claiming consistently good results and its detractors claiming that any benefits are probably due to a placebo effect. Some therapists have stated that there is scant evidence of any research and practical evidence of the value of microcurrent, so, for their interest and that of others conducting research into microcurrent therapy, I have compiled a lengthy, but incomplete, list of English language references that relate to the theoretical foundations and clinical applications of microcurrent.

My own interest in this field was piqued while I was gathering research information for my M.Sc into the mechanisms underlying the electroencephalogram (EEG) in brain research. While browsing in the old science library located in the physics building at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa during 1971, I encountered a few fascinating texts: one edited by Barnothy (1969) and another by Presman (1970), as well as several articles by Robert Becker, with whom I later had periodic contact over the years (these are all referenced below).

Korostoff. E.: Stress generated potentials in bone: Relationship to plezoelectricity of collagen. J. Biomech. 10:41. 1977.

Koski K, Lahdemaki P. Adaptation of the mandible in children with adenoids. Am J Orthod 1975;68:660-65.

Koski KK Cranial growth centers, facts or fallacies? Am J Orthod 1968;54:566-83.

Krukowski, M.; Simmons, D. J.; Summerfield, A.; Osdoby, P. Charged beads: Generation of bone and giant cells. J. Bone Min. Res. 2:165-171; 1988.

Lanyon. L. E… and Hartman. W.: Strain related electrical potentials recorded in vitro and in viro. Calcif. Tissue Res. 22:315. 1977.

Lavine LS, Lustrin I, Shamos MH & Moss M. The influence of electric current on bone regeneration in vivo. Acta Orthop Scan 1971:42:305-314.

Lavine LS, Lustrin I, Shamos M, Rinolds R & Liboff A. Electrical enhancement of bone healing Science 1972;75:1118-21.

Lavine. L. S… Lustfin, I & Shamos. M. H.: Treat C~cal Onnopaeocs and related Rescaeca men: of congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia with direct current. Clin. Orthop. 124:69. 1977.

Levy, D. D & Rubin, B. Inducing bone growth in vivo by pulse stimulation. Clin. Orthop & Rel. Res. 88:218-222; 1972.

Liboff, AR.; Williams, T.; Strong, D; Wistar, R. Time-varying magnetic fields: Effect on DNA synthesis. Science 223:818-820; 1984.

Liss, S. (1996). Neurochemical profiles following electrocranial stimulation. Presented at the Hans Selye Eighth International Conference on Stress. Montreux, Switzerland.

Llaurado JG, Sances A Jr & Battocletti J (eds) Biologic and Clinical Effects of Low Frequency Magnetic and Eelectric Fields CC Thomas, Springfield, Ill 1974

Lubar, J., et al. (1995). EEG spectrum in neurofeedback treatment of attention deficit disorder. J of Psycho-educational Assessment. Special issue, Dec.

Luben, RA. Comparison of electromagnetic effects on para-thyroid hormone receptors and beta-adrenergic receptors in bone cells. J. Cell Biol. 109:172a; 1989.

Luben, RA & Cain, C. Use of hormone receptor activities to investigate the membrane effects of low energy electromagnetic fields. In: Adey, WR.; Lawrence, AF (eds) Nonlinear Electrodynamics in Biological Systems. New York: Plenum Press; 1984:23-34.

Luben, RA.; Cain, CD.; Chen, MC.; Rosen, D & Adey, WR. Inhibition of parathyroid hormone actions on bone cells in culture by induced low energy electromagnetic fields. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79:4180-4184; 1982.

Luben, RA.; Cobh, D. V. Effects of parathormone and ealci-tonin on citrate and hyaluronate metabolism in cultured bone. Endocrinology 98:413-419; 1976.

Luben, RA.; Huynh, D.; Weinshank, R. L.; Smith, L. E. Molecular cloning of candidate sequences for the mouse osteo-blast parathyroid hormone receptor. In: Cohn, DV; Glorieux, F; Martin, T(eds.) Calcium Regulation and Bone Metabolism, vol. 10. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1990:39-44.

Luben, RA.; Wong, G. L.; Cohn, D. V. Biochemical characterization with parathormone and caicitonin ofisolated bone cells: Provisional identification of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Endocrinology 99:526-534; 1976.

Lundin A & Thore A. Analytical information obtainable by evaluation of the tlme course of firefly biolumincscence in the assay of ATP. Anal. Biochem. 66:47. 1975.

Luben, RA. (1991). Effects of low-energy electromagnetic fields (pulsed and dc) on membrane signal transduction processes in biological systems. Health Physics. 61(1): 15-28.

Luben, RA., Effects of low-energy electromagnetic fields(pulsed and dc)on membrane signal transduction processes in biological systems.(1991) Health Physics, Vol 61, No.1, pgs 15-28.

Lundin A & Thore A Analytical information obtainable by evaluation of the tlme course of firefly biolumincscence in the assay of ATP. Anal. Biochem. 66:47. 1975.

Manley Tehan, L, Microcurrent Therapy: Universal Treatment Techniques and Applications. Corona, CA: Manley & Associates; 1994

Marsland, TP. Biophysical Studies of Pulsed Electromagnetic Field Interaction with Biological Systems. London: Plenum Press; NATO ASI Series 97; 1985:547-595.

Martin, R. B & Gutman, W. The effect of electric fields on osteoporosis of disuse. Calc. Tiss. Res. 25:23-27; 1978.

Masureik C, Erikson C. Preliminary clinical evaluation of the effect of small electrical currents on the healing of jaw fractures. Clin Orthop & Rel Res 1977;124:84-91.

McClanahan, B. J.; Phillips, R. D. The influence of electric field exposure on bone growth and fracture repair in rats. Bioelectromagnetics 4:11-19; 1983.

McComb, RB; Bowers, GN Jr & Posen, S. Alkaline Phosphatase. New York: Plenum Press; 1979.

McNamara JA Jr., Carlson DS. Quantitative analysis of temporomandibular joint adaptations to protrusive function. Am J Orthod 1979;76:593-611.

Mercola, JM & Kirsch, D. The Basis for Microcurrent Electrical Therapy in Conventional Medical Practice, J of Advancement in Medicine, 1995;8(2): 83-97

Mitchell. P Chemiosmotic coupling in oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation. Biol. Rev. 41:445 1966.

Mitchell. P Vectorial chemistry and the molecular mechanism of chemiosmotic coupling: Power transmission by proticity. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 4:400. 1976.

Morgareidge, KR Chipman, MR, Microcurrent Therapy, Physical Therapy Today, Spring 1990:50-53

Nair, I.; Morgan, G & Florig, H. Biological effects of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; Office of Technology Assessment, Document OTA-BP-E-53; 1989.

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Mel C Siff PhD

Denver

mcsiff@aol.com

July 2000